Paper+2+Dysfunction+&+Gender

a) **__Describe__** **__one __****__empirical study related to the psychology of dysfunctional __**
 * __behaviour.__ **//[8 marks] //

One emprical study related to the psychology of disfunctional behaviour was Holdcraft & Iacono (2002)

The aims of the study was to investigate the presence of effects on gender differences in the course, severity and symptoms labelled in DSM-III-R alcohol dependence in a community-based sample. They designed a comparison of substance-related variables among men and women divided into two groups based on the median birth year of the sample was conducted. The participants were 468 men and 132 women with life-time alcohol dependence, the vast majority of whom were born between 1941 and 1960. Measurements of substance use and DSM-III-R substance use disorders were assessed by a structured interview administered in person.The results revealed that findings of individuals born after 1951 had higher rates of alcohol dependence. Among individuals with alcohol dependence, those born after 1951 had an earlier onset and longer duration of alcohol-related problems. Significant interactions indicated that these effects were stronger for women than men. Conclusively, the risk for alcohol dependence appears to be rising in younger generations, and particularly for younger women, making them an important target group for prevention and treatment programs. (b) **__Explain how gender considerations may affect the findings of studies related to the psychology of dysfunctional behaviour.__** //[12 marks] // Areas of research related to dysfunctional behaviour of substance abuse/dependece disorders has shown a significant amount of gender differences. This effect of gender shows that gender considerations may affect findings of studies with regard to this dysfunctional behaviour.

A previous investigation by Devaud et al (2006) found sex differences in rats in response to chronic alcohol exposure. The largest differences were observed with anticonvulsant treatment during alcohol withdrawal, when seizure susceptibility is significantly increased. This study was aimed at exploring whether gender influences timing for the development/recovery from alcohol dependence. Alcohol was administered in a liquid diet, with pair-fed animals. Alcohol dependence and withdrawal were assessed by measurement of seizure thresholds after abrupt removal of the alcohol diet. Seizure thresholds were determined by slow, tail vein infusion. This resulted in m ale and female rats displaying differences in timing for both onset and recovery from alcohol dependence, as determined by changes in alcohol withdrawal seizure susceptibility. In consideration of these findings, whatever mechanisms underlie the development of alcohol dependence, there is a different sequence of events in male compared with female rats. Studies are ongoing to determine associations between behavioral measures of alcohol dependence/withdrawal and selective neuronal adaptations.  McGue et al (1995) found s tudies of patients with cocaine and heroin use disorders have shown gender differences in prevalence, course, and outcome. These differences may be decreasing in successive generations. Less is known about gender differences in course and symptoms for other illicit drug use disorders, especially in community samples. The method used for this experiment entailed participants (1323 men and 1384 women) who were biological or step-parents of twins and born in the 1940–1960s, from the Minnesota Twin-Family Study (MTFS) were divided into two cohorts based on the median birth year. A structured interview was used to assess DSM-III-R cannabis, amphetamine, cocaine and hallucinogen use disorders. Results found that there was a higher prevalence of each of these drug disorders and earlier onset of cannabis and amphetamine use disorders in later-born participants. For most drug use disorder categories, men and women were similar with respect to age of onset and severity of disorder but women had a shorter course of drug use disorders. Women with amphetamine disorders were atypical with respect to having a higher frequency of use but similar number of lifetime uses compared to men, and more emotional effects of amphetamine intoxication than men. In addition, women with amphetamine disorders were more likely to have anorexia nervosa than those without amphetamine disorders. Researchers have long been aware that many drug abusers also have serious mental disorders, a status referred to as dual diagnosis or comorbidity. A study conducted by Kathleen T. Brady et al. (1997) examined gender differences in psychiatric disorders among 100 treatment-seeking cocaine and alcohol abusers. The study's preliminary findings suggest that both onset scenarios - drug abuse first or mental disorder first - sometimes may occur. It is possible that the gender of the drug abuser may be a factor in determining which comes first, depending on the psychiatric disorder involved. In the case of depressive episodes, Brady's study suggests that for women, depression comes first more often; for men, drug abuse appears to come first more often. Therefore men may be at greater risk for this response to cocaine, which would help explain the lack of gender differences in depression rates among cocaine abusers we studied compared to rates in the general population. Moreover, men typically consume more alcohol and use more cocaine, which would increase the damaging effects of these substances, which, in turn, might lead to depression, which can therefore effect the gender related results.The study shows that women more often than men were diagnosed with not just depression but with other psychiatric disorders as well before they began using drugs. For example, as with depression, women are significantly more likely than are men to have a diagnosis of panic disorder before the onset of drug abuse.

Another study that showed the significance of gender considerations was on done by Lande et al (2007). Operation Iraqi Freedom offered an opportunity to study the role of alcohol use among men and women serving in the US Army. The goal of this study was to determine whether there are gender-based differences in alcohol use among US Army soldiers, and if so, to evaluate the role of alcohol education efforts in the military. In February 2005, 1200 individuals enlisted in the US Army were asked to complete a 29-item questionnaire regarding alcohol-use patterns. Survey topics included attitudes toward alcohol consumption and associated negative consequences. Six hundred eighty-five men and 325 women responded to the questionnaire for an overall response rate of 84%. Although men were more likely to engage in "bolus" drinking (ie, binge drinking), women exceeded established guidelines for safe alcohol consumption at a risk-adjusted rate nearly twice that of men. In addition, for individuals whose behaviors were not in conformity with public health guidelines for safe alcohol consumption, the severity of reported negative consequences was influenced by gender. Women initially experience greater psychosocial impairment, and—should harmful drinking patterns progress to alcohol dependency—they are at greater risk of injury, morbidity, and mortality than men. **Conclusively, s**everal gender-specific differences in alcohol-consumption patterns were found. Because the present study also found that women generally have more interest in educational interventions for alcohol abuse issues, however, researchers conclude that the efficacy of US Army risk-reduction programs would be improved by addressing gender-based differences.  Few studies have addressed the effect of gender on the relationship between alcohol and anxiety. Students in a Nigerian university, grouped into five separate categories of alcohol use completed the Zung's Self Rating Anxiety Scale. Although a non-linear “J shaped” relationship was found between alcohol use and anxiety symptoms among males, a linear relationship was found among females. Women tend not to share the positive effect moderate alcohol use confers on anxiety status. This gender difference may be an important consideration when planning preventive strategies for alcohol related problems in Nigerian youths.These results could also help explain gander effects on alcoholism. This study was done by Adewuya et al (2006).

Fundamentally, these results have several implications for prevention, etiology and treatment with regards to gender considerations.